Toxic Zen Story #4.8, part 2 of 3: The Silk Road, Franciscans,
Dominicans, Mongol Invasions & Kamikaze, Inquisitions, Torquemada,
Tokugawas, Jesuits, and Dharma Debates.

part 2, continued from part 1 of 3:
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1209-1229 CE: The 1st Papal Inquisition.

    By the 13th century, the dream of a lasting
    crusader kingdom in the Holy Lands was starting
    to fade. Pope Innocent III then turned the zeal
    of the crusaders against fellow Christians. In
    1202, the Fourth Crusade was launched which later
    captured Constantinople. Next, in 1209, Innocent
    III launched a crusade against the Cathars  in
    southern France (Languedoc region). This bloody
    action, known to history as the Albigensian
    Crusade, would directly lead to the establishment
    of the first Inquisition.

    The Albigensian Crusade (so named, because the
    French city of Albi was a Cathar stronghold),
    lasted for 20 years, from 1209 to 1229. While
    authorized by the pope, the actual fighting was
    carried out primarily by secular forces,
    especially under Simon de Montfort. The
    suppression of the Cathar heresy established new
    "standards" for ferocity for the Roman Church in
    dealing with its own flock. Perhaps the most
    famous example was on July 22, 1209, when the
    city of Beziers was sacked, with over 20,000 men,
    women and children killed by crusaders. The event
    will forever be framed in history by the words of
    papal legate Arnaud, whom, when asked if
    Catholics should be spared during the assault,
    answered "Kill them all, for God knows His own".

    Wholesale burnings of Cathars were carried out
    during the Crusade, including 400 burnt after the
    fall of Lavaur in 1211, and 94 burnt after the
    fall of Casses in the same year. It was against
    this backdrop that Pope Gregory IX instituted the
    Papal Inquisition in 1227/31. While the
    Albigensian Crusade had wiped out most of the
    Cathar strongholds, there were still heretics to
    be hunted down and burned -- many of whom had
    gone into hiding during the years of the Crusade.
    Examples of post-Crusade slaughter of the Cathars
    include 183 burned in Montwimer (Marne) in 1239,
    and the burning of 215 Cathar perfecti at the
    Castle of Montsegur in 1244 (sometimes referred
    to as the Massacre at Montsegur.)

    And while the Cathars were the initial targets of
    the Inquisition (so much so that, for many years,
    the term "Cathar" was used synonymously with
    "heretic"), the scope of the Papal Inquisition
    would eventually range much wider and further
    than the Cathars. Ultimately, it would include
    victims such as the Waldensians, Fraticelli (a
    splinter group of the Franciscans), the Knights
    Templar, and (much later) -- Protestants.

    By 1233, the Dominicans (the order founded by St.
    Dominic in 1217) were given the primary charter
    to act as Inquisitors, joined shortly after by
    the Franciscans (founded by St. Francis of Assisi
    in 1209/10). Curiously, the first 100 years of
    the Papal Inquisition could be said to have been
    a battle between ascetic groups. Many of the
    members of these groups were referred to as
    mendicant friars, meaning they received
    sustenance by begging.

    By the 12th/13th centuries, many members of the
    Roman Catholic clergy were known for their rather
    profligate living styles, including many
    monastics. A number of groups rose up during this
    period that believed that the church should
    return to the example set by the apostles in Acts
    -- the church should own no possessions. Further,
    they believed that clergy should earn the respect
    of the people by giving up worldly goods, and
    going out into the world to preach the gospel.
    (The argument between the ascetics and the
    status-quo-Church is well laid out in the book
    (and resulting movie) The Name of the Rose, by
    Umberto Eco).

    Today, it can initially be difficult to
    understand why some ascetic groups (such as the
    Dominicans and Franciscans) were openly welcomed
    by the church (and indeed, were the first
    Inquisitors), while other ascetic groups (the
    Waldensians, the Cathars, the Fraticelli) were
    hunted down and burned at the stake. The answer,
    though, is rather clear -- the former groups
    submitted to the authority of the Church, while
    the latter groups ultimately rejected the
    authority of pope and clergy.

    It should be noted that prior to the institution
    of the Papal Inquisition in 1227/31, local
    bishops had the authority to investigate, and try
    heretics in local ecclesiastical courts. What
    made the Inquisition distinctive is that the
    Inquisitors theoretically answered only to the
    pope -- not to the local bishop, nor even to the
    heads of their Order. This autonomy allowed the
    Inquisition to act as an independent tribunal,
    able to go where it wanted, when it wanted, and
    try whom it wanted -- with no interference
    allowed from local secular or ecclesiastical
    authorities. (Those that tried to interfere with
    the autonomy of the Inquisition were, of course,
    branded as heretics themselves).

    The Use of Torture

    The use of torture was authorized in 1252 by Pope
    Innocent IV. In Spain, it is estimated that
    torture was used in about 1/3 of all cases.
    (Hroch, p. 146) The purpose of torture was to
    exact confessions. Since some people questioned
    whether confessions received under torture were
    valid, the accused would be asked to verify what
    they had admitted under torture several hours
    later. If they refused to validate their
    confession, they would be subject to more
    torture.

    Popular methods of torture included flogging,
    burning, the rack, and the roasting of feet over
    burning coals. In Spain and Italy, the garrucha
    was popular -- the victim's hands would be tied
    behind their back, and they'd be lifted off the
    ground by a rope tied around the wrists.

    In Spain, another method of torture was oft
    employed - the water torture (tortura del'agua).
    In this scenario, the victim would be bound to
    the rack, with his head lower than rest of his
    body. The mouth would then be forced open
    (sometimes with cloth), and water would be forced
    into the mouth. The victim would risk suffocation
    if he did not "confess".

    Methodologies of the Inquisition

    "Their form of proceeding is an infallible way to
    destroy whomsoever the inquisitors wish. The
    prisoners are not confronted with the accuser or
    informer. Nor is there any informer or witness
    who is not listened to. A public convict, a
    notorious malefactor, an infamous person, a
    common prostitute, a child, are in the holy
    office, though no where else, credible accusers
    and witnesses. Even the son may depose against
    his father, the wife against her husband." -
    Voltaire (Jones, p. 88)

    To late-20th century Americans, the methodologies
    of the Inquisition are understandably horrifying.
    The Inquisition created an atmosphere where the
    denouncing of real or imagined sins of neighbors,
    business partners, even family members was
    encouraged. The accused had almost no rights --
    no right to a lawyer, no right to know who their
    accusers were, and no right to know the nature of
    the charges leveled against them. Torture was
    used in many cases to extract confessions. The
    methodologies and the ferocity of the Inquisition
    stood as unique in the history of Western
    civilization until the Nazis and Communists of
    the 20th century.

    In this section we'll examine how the Inquisitor
    went about his job, and what the experience of
    the accused might have been.

    The Edict of Faith

    "Listen to me, citizen! I am no heretic: I have a
    wife, and sleep with her, and she has born me
    sons. I eat meat, I tell lies and swear
    [activities forbidden to Cathar perfecti], and I
    am a good Christian." -- Jean Tisseyre, Toulouse
    (Oldenbourg, p. 288)

    Typically, the cycle of the Inquisition would
    start with the Inquisitor and his entourage
    (Tomas Torquemada traveled with 50 mounted
    bodyguards, and 200 foot soldiers) visiting a
    particular town or parrish. The Inquisitor would
    often preach to the population in the town square
    or church about the sin of heresy. An Edict of
    Faith was often published by the Inquisitor,
    giving detailed instructions as to how to spot a
    heretic (either in other people, or in yourself!)

    Typically, a 1-4 week Term of Grace followed in
    which voluntary confessions were sought. Those
    that stepped forward voluntarily and admitted to
    their heresy were often given limited punishment.
    Also during this period the Inquisitor would
    start accumulating information from denouncers --
    those that were reporting heresy in others. This
    was, of course, a convenient way to do away with a
    business or personal rival (although there was
    one safeguard, which will be described later).
    Sometimes the Inquisitor would call upon a whole
    parish or city to testify. In 1245/6 inquisitors
    in the Toulouse area called on 8,000-10,000
    people to testify! (Hamilton, p. 42)

    After the period of grace, everyone in the parish
    or city that had not voluntarily confessed was at
    risk of being denounced. The Inquisition only
    required evidence of two witnesses for
    prosecution. And, as pointed out by Voltaire in
    the preamble of this section, the inquisitors
    were not very choosy about who could bring the
    denunciation. Wives and husbands could testify
    against each other. Convicted heretics and
    convicted criminals could denounce others.

    The experience of the accused

    Once a person had been accused, he or she was
    politely summoned to appear before the
    Inquisition. Such an appearance was not a
    requirement, but failure to appear was taken as
    evidence of guilt. During the Inquisition, several
    inquisitors wrote "handbooks" for budding
    inquisitors. The excerpt below gives advice to
    the inquisitor on how to handle an early
    interrogation of a suspect:

    "The inquisitor should behave in a friendly
    manner and act as though he already knows the
    whole story. He should glance at his papers and
    say: 'It's quite clear you are not telling the
    truth' or should pick up a document and look
    surprised, saying: 'How can you lie to me like
    this when what I've got written down here
    contradicts everything you've told me?' He should
    then continue: 'Just confess -- you can see that
    I know the whole story already'". - Nicholas
    Eymeric, Directorium inquisitorium (Hroch, p.
    145)

    Inquisition trials were held in secret. Suspects
    were not told the names of their accusers;
    however, they would be asked for a list of people
    that might bear them ill will. If the names of
    the denouncers were on the list, the accused was
    often set free (clever suspects would often
    present very long lists!)

    The accused were not able to call witnesses in
    their own defense, nor (during most of the
    Inquisition) were they allowed to have counsel
    present. (In some areas, lawyers for the accused
    were allowed, but if the accused were found
    guilty of heresy, the lawyer could also be so
    charged, for having defended them!)

    The accused were often put into Inquisitorial
    prisons during the time between arrest and
    sentence. In Spain, this period would often last
    for 3-4 years. During imprisonment, the accused
    usually had to pay their own expenses. This fact,
    and the fact that suspects found guilt of heresy
    often had to forfeit their property, meant that
    the Inquisition was often targeted against the
    wealthy rather than the poor. During the period
    of imprisonment, the accused was not allowed to
    talk to anyone other than the inquisitors.

    Since the primary stated goal of the Inquisition
    was to save souls, suspects were continually
    encouraged to confess to their heresy. Those that
    admitted their "guilt", and were willing to give
    the Inquisition names of other potential
    heretics, were often let off with penances.
    Penances could include:

    -Pilgrimages to local shrines, or to Rome,
    Compostella, Canterbury, etc.
    -Being forced to wear large yellow crosses on
    their clothing. In Spain, these were referred to
    as sanbenito.
    -Imprisonment in Inquisitorial prisons
    -Scourging or lashing (Spain)
    -The harshest sentences (such as complete
    confiscation of property or burning at the stake)
    were reserved for two types of offenders - those
    that refused to recant of their heresy (often the
    case, for example, with Cathar perfecti), and
    "relapsed" heretics. Relapsed heretics could be
    those that had been charged by the Inquisition at
    an earlier time, and had recanted of their
    heresy, or, in Spain, baptized Jews or Moslems
    that continued to secretly practice their faith
    might automatically be considered "relapsed"
    heretics.

    Once a relapsed or unrepentant heretic was found
    guilty, they were handed over (or "relaxed") to
    the secular authorities for punishment. This was
    not just an jurisdictional issue. The Church had
    a motto - "the Church shrinks from blood"
    (ecclesia abhorret a sanguine). Based on this
    motto, the Church itself would not administer the
    death sentence. Rather, this was left to local
    secular authorities. The chosen method for
    administering capital punishment -- burning at
    the stake, was partially chosen because it did
    not shed blood.

    The families of heretics that were burned
    typically had their property confiscated by the
    secular authorities. In Spain, descendents of
    heretics could not serve in public office,
    couldn't enter holy orders, and couldn't become
    physicians, tutors of the young, or advocates.

    The Act Of Faith

    The final scene of the Inquisitorial process was
    the Act of Faith (an auto-da-fé in Spain and
    16th-century Italy, sermo generalis in the early
    days of the Papal Inquisition). Often, the
    accused did not hear their sentence until the day
    of the auto (those that were sentenced to death
    would be told the night before).

    The Act of Faith was held in public, typically in
    a town square or (in Italy), inside a local
    church. They were often huge public spectacles.
    In 1660, an auto-da-fé held in Seville lasted for
    three days, and was attended by 100,000 people.
    On June 30, 1680, an auto-da-fé held in Madrid
    lasted for 14 hours, and had 50,000 spectators.
    The longest part of the auto-da-fé was the
    reading of sentences. With often hundreds of
    convicted heretics, the sentencing could take
    many hours.

    Once the sentences had been read, those sentenced
    to death were led to the place of burning
    (quemadero in Spanish). Those that repented after
    being sentenced to death would be offered the
    courtesy of being garroted to death before being
    burned. Those that refused to recant (often
    Cathar perfecti, Lutherans and Calvinists in
    Italy and Spain, etc.) were burned alive.

    Those burned at the stake would often have
    ghoulish company. It was common practice to
    sentence the dead to burning. The dead would
    dutifully be disinterred and placed next to the
    still living victims. As horrifying as this
    spectacle might seem, there was a pragmatic
    reason for charging, sentencing, disinterring,
    and burning the dead -- the goods of their
    families could be confiscated.
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1211 CE: First major Mongol conquest, following an invasion of north
China.
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1212 CE: Infamous "Children's Crusade", in which about 50,000 European
children lost their lives or were sold into slavery.
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1216 CE: Founding of Dominican Order by St. Dominic.
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1219-1225 CE: Yeh-lü Ch'u-ts'ai. Great Kitan statesman and poet who
became advisor to Genghis Khan and his successors. Traveled with
Genghis Khan and his army to Central Asia in 1219. Journeyed to Altai,
Ili valley, Talas, Samarkand, Buhara. His impression on the prosperous
Buhara can be read on some of his poems. Returned via Tienshan,
Urumqi, Turfan, and Hami. His travel book Xi Yue Lu (The Travel Record
to the West) is only available in Chinese.
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1220-1221 CE: Wu-ku-sun Chung tuan.Accompanied by An T'ing chen, sent
as ambassador of the Jin emperor to Chingis Khan, whom he found
apparently in the Hindukush mountains (today's Afghanistan), not "the
North." The Pei shi ki (Notes on an Embassy to the North) is a written
version of his oral report copied in the Chi pu tsu chai ts'ung shu.
Bretschneider indicates the "narrative is of little importance."
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1221-1224 CE: K'iu Ch'ang Ch'un and Li chi ch'ang. An eminent Taoist
monk born in 1148 CE and thus elderly at the time of his trip, Ch'ang
Ch'un was ordered by Chingis Khan to travel to his court. The route
went through the Altai and Tienshan mountains, the southern parts of
today's Kazakhstan, through Kyrgyzstan, to Samarkand and then down
into NE Iran and Afghanistan. He was accompanied by Li Chi ch'ang, who
wrote the Hsi Yu Chi, a rather detailed diary of the journey; it was
published with an introduction by Sun si in 1228 and included in the
Tao tsang tsi yao. Bretschneider feels that this account "occupies a
higher place than many reports of our European medieval travelers."
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1222 CE: Nichiren Daishonin is born (d. 1282) . See 1253 CE for the
establishment of his Buddhism.
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1224 CE: Shinran (Japan) pronounces Salvation by faith alone (the Ikko
sect).

When the caesaro-papist ruling becomes weakened, salvational and
prophetic religion rises. Being free from the caesaro-papist and
hierocratic control, religious thinkers and reformers attempt to
rationalize and internalize religiosity.

On the one hand, Japanese monks transformed the religiosity of
self-achievement (enlightenment) of Nara Buddhism into salvation by
faith for Pure Land Buddhism.

They were "to seek not enlightenment' but salvation' in the Pure Land"
(Kitagawa 1966).

In the 10th century, at the time of the increasingly weakened Imperial
authority and thereby becoming autonomous but secularizing monastery,
Ryogen (912-85) and Genshin (942-1017) developed a
pietistic-salvational religiosity in the monastery. In particular,
Genshin wrote Essentials of Salvation (Ojo yoshu) in 985, "one of the
most widely read works of Japanese Buddhist literature" (Andrews).

Then Honen (1133-1212) opened the way of salvation to the lay people
and established the Pure Land sect outside the monastery. Shinran
(1173-1262), a disciple of Honen, finally came to the conclusion of
salvation by faith alone, the most consistent doctrine of salvational
religion. As a rationalist thinker, Shinran abandoned monastic life,
celibacy, and other means of self-achievement. With this
transformation, Pure Land Buddhism rapidly spread over every strata of
lay people including warriors, nobles, merchants and peasants.

Both salvational Pure Land and prophetic Nichiren Buddhism formed the
voluntary community of lay people which was once prohibited by the
previous Yamato state. Their beliefs spread over the land of Japan.

In particular, the Ikko sect, a sect of Pure Land Buddhism, developed
a powerful hierocratic authority over the lay people.

In 1253, Nichiren declared all of the ten schools of Buddhism in Japan
at this time to be erroneous and unsupportable by the Buddhist sutras
which they used to support those schools. In 1272 he refuted them in
open debate in front of a representative of the government.
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1227 CE: Dogen, Japanese Zen master who studied in China, re-transmits
Ch'an Buddhism to Japan, where it is called "Zen" Buddhism.
__________________________________________________________

1241 CE: The Mongol Empire is the most dominant force on Earth. It
rules from the east coast of China to Turkey, and from Russia to the
Persian Gulf.
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1245-1248 CE: Ascelinus and Simon of San Quentin. Dominican envoys of
the Pope to the Mongols, who went from the Levant into the southern
Caucasus and returned (accompanied by Mongol envoys) via Tabriz,
Mosul, Allepo, Antioch and Acre. There is information about the
embassy in Matthew Paris's chronicle as well as in an account written
by Simon of San Quentin, which has not been translated into English.
__________________________________________________________

1245-1247 CE: Franciscan Giovanni da Pian del Carpini to China. The
first of great European travelers to set out the east was an Italian,
Giovanni da Pian del Carpini, Provincial of the Franciscan Order at
Cologne. He had been one of the early associates of Francis of Assisi.
Since 1222, he had played a leading role in the establishment of the
Franciscan order. Its vow of strict poverty, coupled with its
evangelistic aspirations, made Franciscans (like Buddhist monks)
well-suited to the challenges of travel in the Silk Road. Carpini left
Lyon with another Franciscan (Benedict of Poland) as his companion and
interpreter in April 1245, carrying a letter from the Pope.

He traveled by the northern route through Bohemia, Poland and the
snow-bound Ukraine, where he became very ill that he had to be
transported in a cart. Reaching Kiev they were advised to travel with
Tartar horses on his eastward journey in the Tartar land. Early in
February 1246, Carpini came upon a Mongol encampment on the right bank
of the frozen Dnieper, where 60,000 men were guarding the western
frontiers of the empire. Nobody was able to translate the Papal
letters, but the party was provided with guides and relays of the
horses. The next stop, on April 4, was made at the camp on the Lower
Volga, where they were made to submit to the Mongol purification
ceremony, which involved passing between fires. There while the Papal
letters were being translated into Russian, Arabic and Mongol, they
nearly starved to death, having fasted during the 40 days of Lent,
apart from a thin porridge made with millet mixed with water melted
down from snow. Four days later, they set off on the last stage of
their journey toward the arid plateau of Mongolia. On July 22, 1246
after a 15-month journey of over 3000 miles, they finally reached the
Mongol capital, Karakorum, as a new great Khan, Guyuk, son of Ogadei,
was about to be enthroned. Invited to become a Christian, Guyuk
indicated that first the Pope and princes of Europe would have to come
and swear allegiance to him.

 On November 13, Carpini took his leave of the Mongol rulers, carrying
with him Guyuk's reply to the Pope (Fig. left). With the whole of
Central Asia snowbound, the return journey was even worse than the
outward one, and it took them until the following June to reach Kiev.
In November 1247, Carpini delivered the Great Khan's reply to the
Pope. It was to say the least, discouraging:

....you must come yourself at the head of all your kings and prove to
Us your fealty and allegiance, And if you disregard the command of God
and disobey Our instructions. We shall look up on you as Our enemy.
Whoever recognizes and submits to the Son of Gods and Lord of the
World, refuses submission will be wiped out."

Even though at page of 60 Carpini failed in his mission to convert the
khan, however he did have the first European description of Mongol way
of life, including their clothes made of skins, their felt-covered
dwellings, and their passion for fermented mare's milk (koumiss).
Carpini was an astute observer, and the account of his travels,
Historia Mongolorum (Fig. right: The illuminated first initial of a
copy of Carpini's account of his journey) furnished Europe with the
first glimmer of insight into Tartar customs and beliefs. Much of the
information was later incorporated into the widely read medieval
encyclopedia, the Speculum Historiale of Vincent of Beauvais. Carpini
was the first European since 900 AD on record as having traveled east
of Baghdad and returned to tell the tale
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1246 CE: Nikko Shonin is born (d. 1333).  He is the 2nd High Priest of
Nichiren Shu Komon Shu (the Fuji School), the founder of that school
at the foot of Taisekiji, and Nichiren Daishonin's designated
successor. Among his writings are (1) the Ongi Kuden, or Record of the
Orally Transmitted Teachings (1278), which were his notes from the
lectures on the Lotus Sutra by Nichiren, and (2) the Twenty-Six
Admonitions of Nikko, which were the precepts to be followed
especially by priests in his school, and whereby followers would be
able to tell when priests had fallen away from the school and were no
longer to be followed. Nichikan the 26th High Priest (1665-1726) was
the last to follow the 26 Admonitions. They have never been held by
priests or even any High Priest of Nichiren Shoshu (founded 1912),
which is the reformed Fuji School.
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1249 CE: Dominican Andrew of Longjumeau to China. Soon after Carpini's
return, Louis IX of France was in Cyprus organizing the disastrous
Sixth Crusade against the Saracens (Mamelukes) in Egypt, when he
received an envoy from the Mongol commanding general at Tabriz in
Persia. This messenger brought news that the Great Khan and his nobles
had been converted to Christianity 3 years previously and there was a
possibility of the Mongols helping Louis to fight the Saracens. This
welcome overture prompted the immediate dispatch of a second mission
to the court of Guyak in 1249, this time headed by a Dominican, Andrew
of Longjumeau. Traveling at ten leagues a day, he and his companions
reached Mongolia only to find that Guyuk had died 2 years previously
without becoming a Christian. In the absence of a Great Khan,
Longjumeau was sent home with an arrogant message to the effect that
unless Louis sent a yearly tribute to her court he and his subjects
would be destroyed.
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1253 CE: Nichiren Daishonin establishes the fundamental practice of
the Lotus Sutra of the Latter Day of the Law as chanting
Nam-Myoho-Renge-Kyo, fulfilling Shakyamuni Buddha's predictions in the
28 Chapter Lotus Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra. Immediately he is
attacked by other Buddhist Sects, which are heavily connected to the
Shogun, or militarized, and protective of their village franchises, in
the business of "Funeral Buddhism".

Nichiren Daishonin (1222-1282)

From the SGI website:

       'Nichiren was born on February 16, 1222, in a
    small fishing village named Kominato. At age 11,
    his parents sent him to the local temple to begin
    his education, since at that time the local
    temple served as a school as well as a religious
    center, much as churches and monasteries served
    this purpose in Europe during the Middle Ages.
    There he perfected his skills in reading and
    writing in both Japanese and Chinese, the latter
    being the language of official and scholarly
    communication at the time. The temple where he
    studied (Seicho-ji) belonged to the Tendai sect,
    which nominally adhered to the teachings handed
    down from the T'ien-t'ai school in China. In
    fact, those teachings had become mixed with
    rituals from other sects, a situation typical of
    Japanese Buddhism in the thirteenth century.
    Nichiren was so struck and disturbed by this
    confusion of doctrines that he decided to search
    out the truth behind them. At age 16, therefore,
    he chose to continue his religious studies rather
    than return to secular activities. '

       'Later in life, Nichiren said that he had
    actually achieved enlightenment prior to this
    decision, but to find documentary confirmation of
    his understanding, he set out in 1239 to study at
    the great centers of Buddhist learning elsewhere
    in Japan. During the fourteen years he then spent
    studying Buddhist texts and doctrine, he became
    increasingly critical of the various sects,
    finally becoming convinced that the Lotus Sutra
    ("Hokke Kyo" in Japanese) was the only teaching
    that fully expressed the truth to which he had
    been awakened. He then returned to his home
    temple and, after a week's further contemplation,
    chanted the invocation Nam-myoho-renge-kyo for
    the first time, proclaiming that this phrase
    embodied the essential teaching of the Lotus
    Sutra--the "mystic dharma," the ultimate truth of
    all phenomena.'

       'Preaching this doctrine at the temple where
    he had been educated precipitated the first of
    many persecutions and attempts on his life. From
    that point on, persevering with equanimity
    despite many hardships, he continued to teach
    that chanting the phrase Nam-myoho-renge-kyo
    would lead one to perceive one's essential,
    enlightened nature and thereby attain Buddhahood.
    In order to enable people to sustain more readily
    this effort after his death (or in his absence),
    he inscribed a mandala referred to as the
    Gohonzon as the focus for the religious practice
    of his followers. He taught that chanting Nam-
    myoho-renge-kyo to the Gohonzon would enable a
    person to discover his or her own essential unity
    with the ultimate reality of the universe.
    According to Nichiren, this practice, when rooted
    in faith and sustained by study and compassion
    for others, is the way of enlightenment. '

       'Nichiren spent his life teaching this
    doctrine, always supporting the spiritual growth
    of his lay followers as well as training young
    priests. In his final years Nichiren appointed
    six senior disciples to carry on his teaching. On
    his deathbed, he named one of them, Nikko, as his
    successor. He died on October 13, 1282.'

Nichiren Daishonin, among all of his followers, had two that he
intended to succeed him in propagating the Lotus Sutra and his
teachings. They were his designated successor, Nikko Shonin (1246-1333
CE) and Nikko's designated successor, Nichimoku Shonin (1263-1333).
__________________________________________________________

1253-1255 CE: Franciscan William of Rubruck to China. In 1249, during
Longjumeau's absence, Louis was defeated by the Saracens. He sent a
further delegation to Karakorum. This was headed by the second of the
great friar travelers of the Middle Ages, a 30-year-old Flemish
Franciscan named William of Rubruck. He was to travel as a missionary
rather than an ambassador, although he also carried letters from King
Louis IX of France to the great khan.  After a year at Constantinople
preparing for the journey, Rubruck went by sea to the Crimea, landing
in May 1253. From there he set off with four carts, a decision he
later regretted because it doubled the time it would have taken had
they traveled with horses only. With him went another Franciscan,
Bartholomew of Cremona, a dragoman interpreter, a slave boy bought in
Constantinople and some drivers for the carts.

Carpini account was purely factual but a more lively account was
written by Rubruck. In A Journey to the Eastern Parts of the World,
everything he wrote about his personal experiences has the ring of
truth.  He provided a detailed account of Mongol life and customs. He
sampled what he called 'cosmos' (Koumiss) for the first time and
talked about the Mongol domed tents of felts, or yurts in either black
or whitened with chalk, and the interiors embroidered with trees,
vines, birds and beasts. Up to 30 feet in diameter, the tents of the
Mongols could only be transported on immense wagons drawn by as many
as 22 oxens. Bedding and valuables were carried on tall carts drawn by
camels. The women lived on the eastern side of the tent, men on the
western side. Felts images in the shape of human beings were suspended
above the heads of the husband and his chief wife. At either side of
the entrance, which was closed with a carpet, hung the teat of a mare
and a cow's udder (mares were milked exclusively by men, cows by
women).

Both men and women of the ruling class wore rich clothing, and, in
winter, furs next to the skin. The men shaved a square patch on top of
their heads, leaving a tuft to fall over their eyebrows, with longer
hair at the back and sides. The women smeared their faces in a manner
quite grotesque:

"....the governor seated on his couch, with a little guitar in his
hand, and his wife beside him. And in truth it seemed to me that her
whole nose had been cut off, so snob-nosed was she; and she had
greased this part of her face with some black unguent, and also her
eyebrows, so that she appeared most hideous to us."

Rubruck found that the men had wives "as many as they would", and that
any of their female slaves could be their concubines. Marriageable
girls were often taken by force, with the connivance of their fathers.

In August, they arrived the court of Sartakh, a powerful Mongol chief
who was reportedly a Christian. The report proved to be false, but
Sartakh later helped Rubruck to the Great khan at Karakorum in
Mongolia. There at the west of the Volga, King Louis' letters were
read. In September, a messenger arrived with orders to take them to
Mangu, (another of Ogadei's sons), who had succeeded Guyuk as Great
Khan. The guide warned it would be a 4-month journey "and the cold so
intense that it splits stones and trees". On September 16, with two
pack-horses between the three of them, they set out with their escort
towards the east. From there, they passed the Ural River and the
steppes of Kazakhstan. It was a terrible journey. They were constantly
hungry and thirsty, cold and weary. They were given food only in the
evening; in the morning they had something to drink or millet gruel,
while in the evening they were given meat to eat. Often the meat was
nearly raw. For many weeks, there was no sight of towns, and at night
came the first frosts heralding the onset of winter.

On November 8, they reached Kenchat, a Muslim town in the valley of
the River Talas. There Rubruck learned about the yak, whose cows "will
not allow themselves to be milked unless sung to", and which, like
bulls in Europe, always attacked anyone dressed in red. The travelers
continued their journey and by December 26, they entered a plain vast
as a sea. Rubruck finally arrived at the destination. He seemed to
have come through the ordeal well, but poor Bartholomew was almost at
the end of his tether.

 The friars remained for about 7 months with Möngke Khan, the first
three of which were passed in the camp, suffering terribly from the
cold. Then they moved to Karakorum with the Great Khan and stayed
there for four months. During his stay, he was much visited and
cross-examined about the purpose of his journey; he was only to
baptize 6 people. He eventually realized that the great khan was
interested in religion but would not become a convert. At a revealing
interview Mangu told the friar that just as God had created the
different fingers on a single hand, he had given people different
beliefs and customs. While in the camp, Rubruck made the acquaintance
of a Tibetan lama from whom he gathered further facts about China even
though he never crossed the Great Wall and did not reach China
himself. He was told about the paper money in use there, and how the
people wrote with a brush, "making in one figure the several letters
containing a whole word"; this is the earliest reference to Chinese
writing and paper money in a western world.

Rubruck found Karakorum small not as big as the village of St. Denis
(now a suburb of Paris). "It has two quarters. In that of the Saracens
are the markets, and here a great many Tartars gather on account of
the court....The other is the quarter of the Cathayans, all of whom
are artisans.....There are 12 idols temples of different nations; two
mosques.... and one Christian church at the very end of the city".
Karakorum was the diplomatic center of the world and received
embassies from the Greek Emperor, the Caliph, the King of Delhi and
the Seljuq Sultan, as well as emirs from the Jezireh and Kurdistan and
princes from Russia. King Heythum I of Little Armenia was expected
daily.

At the end of May, Rubruck received permission to return to Europe.
Mangu handed over his letter in reply to King Louis. It reads
"Wherever ears can hear, wherever horses can travel, there let it be
heard and known: these who do not believe, but resist Our
Commandments, shall not be able to see with their eyes, or hold with
their hands, or walk with their feet....If you will obey Us, send your
ambassadors, that We may know whether you wish for peace or war...."
Rubruck had to leave Bartholomew who was not fit enough to make the
journey and Mangu khan agreed to keep him at court and looked after
him. In August 18, 1254, Ruburck "parted with tears" from Bartholomew
and set out with his interpreter, his guide and one servant by a more
northerly summer route. It was another difficult journey and was not
until a year later that Rubruck finally reached Tripoli. There he
learned to his regret that King Louis had already returned to France,
and Rubruck, sent to Acre by the Provincial of the Franciscans, was
never able to deliver the Great Khan's letter in person.
__________________________________________________________

1254-1255 CE: Hayton I (also, Hethum, Haithon) and Kirakos
Gandsaketsi. King of Little Armenia, Hayton traveled through the
Caucasus and territories of Khan Batu to the Great Khan Möngke in
Karakorum and then back via Samarkand, Bukhara and Tabriz. The account
of his travels was written down by Kirakos, who accompanied Hayton.
This account is not to be confused with a descriptive narrative of the
Near East written by Hayton's nephew of the same name.
__________________________________________________________

1254 CE: World's first interfaith debate takes place in Mongolia, in
which Mange Khan declares Buddhism the winner, adopting it as state
religion of the Mongol Empire.
__________________________________________________________

1259-1260 CE: Ch'ang Te. Envoy from Mongol Khan Möngke to his brother
Hülegü soon after the latter's conquest of the Abbasid Chaliphate.
Ch'ang Te's Si Shi Ki, recorded by Liu Yu, is part travel diary and
part a second-hand account of Hülegü's campaigns in the West. Its
geographical information is inferior to that of Ch'ang Ch'un.
__________________________________________________________

1260 CE: Nichimoku Shonin is born (d. 1333).  He is the 3rd High
Priest of Nichiren Shu Komon Shu (the Fuji School) and Nikko Shonin's
designated successor (Nikko is the founder of that school at the foot
of Taisekiji).

In 1333, Nichiren Daishonin's designated successor, Nikko Shonin,
passed away at Omosu (2/7) and his designated successor, Nichimoku
Shonin passed away on the road to Kyoto to remonstrate with the
government, at Tarui (11/15).

After Nitta Yoshisada's army defeated the ruling Hojo clan of the
Kamakura Shogunate and Emperor Godaigo re-established the imperial
government at Kyoto, Nichimoku had decided to remonstrate with the new
government, which might have brought on a new opportunity to refute
the other schools of Buddhism in front of the ruler of the nation.
Tragically, he was old and died during the trip, with no capable
successors.

The quick succession of their deaths created a leadership struggle in
the Fuji School at Taisekiji (Nichiren Shu Komon Shu). The sect
quickly falls into a ruinous struggle which lasts for a century. (Note
that merely 7 years after their passing, Zen became the official
religion of the Shogunate.)

The Fuji School went into decline.
__________________________________________________________

1260-1263 CE: Yeh-lü Hi Liang. Great-grandson of Yeh-lü Ch'u-ts'ai,
who, with his father, worked for Möngke Khan and then Kublai. His
biography in the Yüan-shi relates his travels in Inner Asia in the
period of the Mongol civil war prior to Qubilai's consolidation of
power.
__________________________________________________________

1260 CE: Kublai Khan establishes Tibet as a vassal state, permitting
Tantric Buddhism (like Shingon in Japan) to continue as state
religion.
__________________________________________________________

1260-1269 CE, 1271-1295 CE:. Niccolò and Maffeo Polo. The merchant
father and uncle of Marco Polo traveled from the Crimea through the
other territories of the Golden Horde to Bukhara and ultimately to the
court of Qubilai Khan in North China. Qubilai sent them back to Europe
on a mission to the Pope via the overland route; they arrived in
Venice in 1269. When they departed again for China in 1271 via the
Levant, Anatolia and Persia, they were accompanied by young Marco. Our
knowledge of their travel is from Marco's book.
__________________________________________________________

1270 CE: Eighth and final Christian Crusade into the Holy Lands of the
Middle East.
__________________________________________________________

1271-1295 CE: Marco Polo. The most famous of the Silk Road travelers,
who, by his own account, worked for Qubilai Khan. He traveled overland
through Persia across the Pamirs and south of the Taklamakan; his
return was by sea from China around south Asia to Hormuz, whence he
went overland to the Mediterranean. A Venetian, Marco dictated his
account to a professional writer of romances while imprisoned by the
Genoese on his return. It is important to remember he was not keeping
a diary. Olschki calls it "not...a book of travel and adventure, but a
treatise of empirical geography." Clearly some of the descriptions are
formulaic, others not based on direct observation, and others
reflecting the common stock of travel mythology. Many of his
observations are precise and verifiable; others unique but likely
accurate. Since his main associations seem to have been with the
Mongol rulers of China and with the Muslim merchant community, often
he is silent about "obvious" features of Chinese society. Polo's book
became well known in Renaissance Europe and served as a stimulus to
further travel and discovery.
__________________________________________________________

1272 CE: Nichiren Daishonin, during his exile to Sado Island, debates
the teachers from the ten schools at Tsukahara, at the behest of Lord
Rokuro Saemon, and refutes them, establishing the Lotus Sutra as the
Buddha's highest teaching in Japan. Many of the attendees to this
debate become some of the Daishonin's most loyal followers.

After the debate Nichiren goes on to predict the Mongol attacks at
Kyoto and Kamakura (to the Lord Rokuro Saemon). After this prediction
is partially borne out, he is pardoned and leaves his exile from Sado
Island.

From "The Actions of the Votary of the Lotus Sutra" - Writings of
Nichiren Daishonin pp. 770-774.

       'In the yard around the hut the snow piled
    deeper and deeper. No one came to see me; my only
    visitor was the piercing wind. Great
    Concentration and Insight and the Lotus Sutra lay
    open before my eyes, and Nam-myoho-rengekyo
    flowed from my lips. My evenings passed in
    discourse to the moon and stars on the fallacies
    of the various schools and the profound meaning
    of the Lotus Sutra. Thus, one year gave way to
    the next.'

       'One finds people of mean spirit wherever one
    goes. The rumor reached me that the observers of
    the precepts and the Nembutsu priests on the
    island of Sado, including Yuiamidabutsu, Shoyu-
    bo, Insho-bo, Jido-bo, and their followers---
    several hundred of them--- had met to decide what
    to do about me. One said: "Nichiren, the
    notorious enemy of Amida Buddha and an evil
    teacher to all people, has been exiled to our
    province. As we all know, exiles to this island
    seldom manage to survive. Even if they do, they
    never return home. So no one is going to be
    punished for killing an exile. Nichiren lives all
    alone at a place called Tsukahara. No matter how
    strong and powerful he is, if there's no one
    around, what can he do? Let's go together and
    shoot him with arrows!" Another said, "He was
    supposed to be beheaded, but his execution has
    been postponed for a while because the wife of
    the lord of Sagami is about to have a child. The
    postponement is merely temporary, though. I hear
    he is eventually going to be executed." A third
    said, "Let's ask Lord Rokuro Saemon to behead
    him. If he refuses, we can plan something
    ourselves." There were many proposals about what
    to do with me, but the third proposal [mentioned
    above] was decided on. Eventually several hundred
    people gathered at the constable's office.(20)'

       'Rokuro Saemon addressed them, saying: "An
    official letter from the regent directs that the
    priest shall not be executed. This is no
    ordinary, contemptible criminal, and if anything
    happens to him, I, Shigetsura, will be guilty of
    grave dereliction. Instead of killing him, why
    don't you confront him in religious debate?"
    Following this suggestion, the Nembutsu and other
    priests, accompanied by apprentice priests
    carrying the three Pure Land sutras, Great
    Concentration and Insight, the True Word sutras,
    and other literature under their arms or hanging
    from their necks, gathered at Tsukahara on the
    sixteenth day of the first month [in 1272]. They
    came not only from the province of Sado but also
    from the provinces of Echigo, Etchu, Dewa, Mutsu,
    and Shinano. Several hundred priests and others
    gathered in the spacious yard of the hut and in
    the adjacent field. Rokuro Saemon, his brothers,
    and his entire clan came, as well as lay priest
    farmers,(21) all in great numbers. The Nembutsu
    priests uttered streams of abuse, the True Word
    priests turned pale, and the Tendai priests
    called loudly to vanquish the opponent. The lay
    believers cried out in hatred, "There he is---the
    notorious enemy of our Amida Buddha!" The uproar
    and jeering resounded like thunder and seemed to
    shake the earth. I let them clamor for a while
    and then said, "Silence, all of you! You are here
    for a religious debate. This is no time for
    abuse." At this, Rokuro Saemon and others voiced
    their accord, and some of them grabbed the
    abusive Nembutsu followers by the neck and pushed
    them back.'

       'The priests proceeded to cite the doctrines
    of Great Concentration and Insight and the True
    Word and the Nembutsu teachings. I responded to
    each, establishing the exact meaning of what had
    been said, then coming back with questions.
    However, I needed to ask only one or two at most
    before they were completely silenced. They were
    far inferior even to the True Word, Zen,
    Nembutsu, and Tendai priests in Kamakura, so you
    can imagine how the debate went. I overturned
    them as easily as a sharp sword cutting through a
    melon or a gale bending the grass. They not only
    were poorly versed in the Buddhist teachings but
    contradicted themselves. They confused sutras
    with treatises or commentaries with treatises. I
    discredited the Nembutsu by telling how Shan-tao
    fell out of the willow tree, and refuted the
    story about the Great Teacher Kobo's three pronged
    diamond-pounder and of how he transformed himself
    into the Thus Come One Mahavairochana.22 As I
    demonstrated each falsity and aberration, some of
    the priests swore, some were struck dumb, while
    others turned pale. There were Nembutsu adherents
    who admitted the error of their school; some
    threw away their robes and beads on the spot and
    pledged never to chant the Nembutsu again.'

       'The members of the group all began to leave,
    as did Rokuro Saemon and his men. As they were
    walking across the yard, I called the lord back
    to make a prophecy. I first asked him when he was
    departing for Kamakura, and he answered that it
    would be around the seventh month, after his
    farmers had finished their work in his fields.
    Then I said: "For a warrior, 'work in the fields'
    means assisting his lord in times of peril and
    receiving fiefs in recognition of his service.
    Fighting is about to break out in Kamakura. You
    should hasten there to distinguish yourself in
    battle, and then you will be rewarded with fiefs.
    Since your warriors are renowned throughout the
    province of Sagami, if you remain here in the
    countryside tending to your farms and arrive too
    late for the battle, your name will be
    disgraced." I do not know what he thought of
    this, but Homma, dumbfounded, did not utter a
    word. The Nembutsu priests and the observers of
    the precepts and lay believers looked bewildered,
    not comprehending what I had said.'

       'After everyone had gone, I began to put into
    shape a work in two volumes called The Opening of
    the Eyes, which I had been working on since the
    eleventh month of the previous year. I wanted to
    record the wonder of Nichiren, in case I should
    be beheaded. The essential message in this work
    is that the destiny of Japan depends solely upon
    Nichiren. A house without pillars collapses, and
    a person without a soul is dead. Nichiren is the
    soul of the people of this country. Hei no Saemon
    has already toppled the pillar of Japan, and the
    country grows turbulent as unfounded rumors and
    speculation rise up like phantoms to cause
    dissention in the ruling clan. Further, Japan is
    about to be attacked by a foreign country, as I
    described in my On Establishing the Correct
    Teaching. Having written to this effect, I
    entrusted the manuscript to Nakatsukasa Saburo
    Saemon- no-jo's messenger. The disciples around
    me thought that what I had written was too
    provocative, but they could not stop me.'

       'Just then a ship arrived at the island on the
    eighteenth day of the second month. It carried
    the news that fighting had broken out in Kamakura
    and then in Kyoto, causing indescribable
    suffering. Rokuro Saemon, leading his men, left
    on fast ships that night for Kamakura. Before
    departing, he humbly begged for my assistance
    with palms joined.'

       'He said: "I have been doubting the truth of
    the words you spoke on the sixteenth day of last
    month, but they have come true in less than
    thirty days. I see now that the Mongols will
    surely attack us, and it is equally certain that
    believers in Nembutsu are doomed to the hell of
    incessant suffering. I will never chant the
    Nembutsu again."'

       'To this I replied: "Whatever I may say,
    unless the lord of Sagami heeds my words, the
    people of Japan will not heed them either, and in
    that case our country will surely be ruined.
    Although I myself may be insignificant, I
    propagate the Lotus Sutra and therefore am the
    envoy of Shakyamuni Buddha. The Sun Goddess and
    Great Bodhisattva Hachiman, who are
    insignificant, are treated with great respect in
    this country, but they are only petty gods as
    compared with Brahma, Shakra, the gods of the sun
    and moon, and the four heavenly kings. It is
    said, however, that to kill someone who serves
    these two gods is equal to the sin of killing
    seven and a half ordinary persons. The grand
    minister of state and lay priest and the Retired
    Emperor of Oki perished because they did so.
    Thus, persecuting me is incomparably worse than
    molesting the servants of those two gods. As I am
    the envoy of Shakyamuni Buddha, the lord of
    teachings, the Sun Goddess and Great Bodhisattva
    Hachiman should bow their heads before me, press
    their palms together, and prostrate themselves.
    The votary of the Lotus Sutra is attended by
    Brahma and Shakra on either side, and the gods of
    the sun and moon light his path before and
    behind. Even if my counsel is heeded, if I am not
    given due respect as the votary of the Lotus
    Sutra, then the country will perish. How ominous
    that the authorities have turned hundreds of
    persons against me and have even banished me
    twice! This country is surely doomed, but since I
    have asked the gods to withhold their punishment
    on our land, it has survived until now. However,
    that punishment has finally descended because
    these unreasonable actions continued. And if my
    counsel is not heeded on this occasion, the gods
    will cause the Mongol empire to send its forces
    to destroy Japan. That would seem to be the kind
    of disaster that Hei no Saemon is intent upon
    calling forth. When it happens, I doubt that you
    and your followers can find any safety even on
    this island." After I had finished speaking,
    Homma, looking deeply perplexed, set off on his
    way.'

       'The lay believers, hearing of this, said to
    one another, "Perhaps this priest has some kind
    of transcendental powers. How terrifying! From
    now on, we had better cease giving any alms or
    support to the Nembutsu priests and the observers
    of the precepts." The observers of the precepts,
    who were followers of Ryokan, and the Nembutsu
    priests said, "[Since this priest predicted the
    outbreak of rebellion in our country,] perhaps he
    is one of the conspirators." After this things
    grew somewhat quieter.'

       'Then the Nembutsu priests gathered again in
    council. "If things go on this way," they said,
    "we will die of starvation. By all means, let's
    rid ourselves of this priest! Already more than
    half the people in the province have gone over to
    his side. What are we to do?" Yuiamidabutsu, the
    leader of the Nembutsu priests, along with Dokan,
    a disciple of Ryokan, and Shoyu-bo, who were
    leaders of the observers of the precepts,
    journeyed in haste to Kamakura. There they
    reported to the lord of the province of Musashi:
    "If this priest remains on the island of Sado,
    there will soon be not a single Buddhist hall
    left standing or a single priest remaining. He
    takes the statues of Amida Buddha and throws them
    in the fire or casts them into the river. Day and
    night he climbs the high mountains, bellows to
    the sun and moon, and curses the regent. The
    sound of his voice can be heard throughout the
    entire province."'

       'When the former governor of Musashi heard
    this, he decided there was no need to report it
    to the regent. Instead he sent private orders
    that any followers of Nichiren in the province of
    Sado should be driven out of the province or
    imprisoned. He also sent official letters
    containing similar instructions. He did so three
    times. I will not attempt to describe what
    happened during this period---you can probably
    imagine. Some people were thrown into prison
    because they were said to have walked past my
    hut, others were exiled because they were
    reported to have given me donations, or their
    wives and children were taken into custody. The
    former governor of Musashi then reported what he
    had done to the regent. But quite contrary to his
    expectations, the regent issued a letter of
    pardon on the fourteenth day of the second month
    in the eleventh year of Bun'ei (1274), which
    reached Sado on the eighth day of the third
    month.'

       'The Nembutsu priests held another council.
    "This man, the archenemy of the Buddha Amida and
    slanderer of the Reverend Shan-tao and the
    Honorable Honen, has incurred the wrath of the
    authorities and happened to be banished to this
    island. How can we bear to see him pardoned and
    allowed to return home alive!"'

       'While they were engaged in various plots, for
    some reason there was an unexpected change in the
    weather. A favorable wind began to blow, and I
    was able to leave the island. The strait can be
    crossed in three days with a favorable wind, but
    not even in fifty or a hundred days when the
    weather is bad. I crossed over in no time at all.
    Thereupon the Nembutsu priests, observers of the
    precepts, and True Word priests of the provincial
    capital of Echigo and Zenko-ji temple in Shinano
    gathered from all directions to hold a meeting.
    "What a shame that the Sado priests should have
    allowed Nichiren to return alive! Whatever we do,
    we must not let this priest make his way past the
    living body of the Buddha Amida."(23)'

       'But in spite of their machinations, a number
    of warriors from the provincial government office
    in Echigo were dispatched to escort me. Thus I
    was able to pass safely by Zenko-ji, and the
    Nembutsu priests were powerless to stop me. I
    left the island of Sado on the thirteenth day of
    the third month, and arrived in Kamakura on the
    twentysixth day of the same month.'

Footnotes:

20. The constable of Sado Province was Hojo Nobutoki, the lord of
Musashi Province, who lived in Kamakura. Homma Rokuro Saemon, the
steward of Niiho in Sado, served in the office as the deputy constable
of the province.

21. Lay priest farmers were individuals who, though they take
religious vows, do not enter a temple but continue to farm and live in
their own homes.

22. The Chinese Pure Land leader Shantao (613--681) was said to have
so earnestly desired rebirth in the Pure Land that he attempted to
hang himself on a willow tree, but instead fell out of the tree and
mortally injured himself. According to legend, when Kobo was about to
leave China to return to Japan, he threw his three-pronged diamond
pounder in the air; it was later found on top of Mount Koya in Japan.
On another occasion, when he was debating with eminent Buddhist
leaders at court, he is said to have transformed himself into
Mahavairochana Buddha, the Buddha revered by the True Word school.

23. The living body of the Buddha Amida indicates the statue of Amida
Buddha enshrined at Zenko-ji temple in the province of Shinano
(present-day Nagano
Prefecture).
__________________________________________________________

1274 CE: The First Mongol invasion of Japan. Nichiren Daishonin
predicts the First and Second Mongol Invasions, and that prediction
occurs.

In 1274, Japan is invaded by a fleet of 900 ships and 31,000 men, as
the Mongols swept over the islands of Tsushima and Iki, and then
attacked the major Southern island of Kyushu. At the point of victory
in Hakata, a storm swept in and sank more than 200 Mongol battleships.
The Mongols withdrew to Korea.

In 1281, the Mongols prepared for their second invasion with a fleet
of 4000 ships and 140,000 men. The Kamakura Shogunate is driven to
poverty in preparation for the invasion, which will cause upheavals in
Japan for centuries. The first 40,000 quickly overwhelmed Tsushima and
Iki again, the remaining 100,000 are delayed for a while, and when
they do join forces, a massive storm sinks everything but 250 ships.
This storm is later called the Divine Wind, or Kamikaze.

From "The Actions of the Votary of the Lotus Sutra" - Writings of
Nichiren Daishonin pp. 774-778.

       'On the eighth day of the fourth month, I met
    with Hei no Saemon. In contrast to his behavior
    on previous occasions, his manner was quite mild,
    and he treated me with courtesy. An accompanying
    lay priest asked me about the Nembutsu, a layman
    asked about the True Word school, and another
    person asked about Zen, while Hei no Saemon
    himself inquired whether it was possible to
    attain the way through any of the sutras preached
    before the Lotus Sutra. I replied to each of
    these questions by citing passages from the
    sutras.'

       'Then Hei no Saemon, apparently acting on
    behalf of the regent, asked when the Mongol
    forces would invade Japan. I replied: "They will
    surely come within this year. I have already
    expressed my opinion on this matter, but it has
    not been heeded. If you try to treat someone's
    illness without knowing its cause, you will only
    make the person sicker than before. In the same
    way, if the True Word priests are permitted to
    try to overcome the Mongols with their prayers
    and imprecations, they will only bring about the
    country's military defeat. Under no circumstances
    whatever should the True Word priests, or the
    priests of any other schools for that matter, be
    allowed to offer up prayers. If each of you has a
    real understanding of Buddhism, you will
    understand this matter on hearing
    me explain it to you.'

       '"Also, I notice that, although advice from
    others is heeded, when I offer advice, it is for
    some strange reason invariably ignored.
    Nevertheless, I would like to state certain facts
    here so that you may think them over later. The
    Retired Emperor of Oki was the sovereign of the
    nation, and the acting administrator [Hojo
    Yoshitoki] was his subject, [and yet the latter
    attacked and defeated the retired emperor]. Why
    would the Sun Goddess permit a subject to attack
    a sovereign, who should be like a father to him?
    Why would Great Bodhisattva Hachiman allow a
    vassal to attack the lord with impunity? And yet,
    as we know, the sovereign and the courtiers
    supporting him were defeated by Hojo Yoshitoki.
    That defeat was no mere accident. It came about
    because they put their faith in the misleading
    teachings of the Great Teacher Kobo and the
    biased views of the great teachers Jikaku and
    Chisho, and because the priests of Mount Hiei,
    To-ji, and Onjo-ji, in their opposition to the
    Kamakura shogunate, offered prayers for its
    defeat. Thus their curses 'rebounded upon the
    originator,' (24) and as a consequence the
    sovereign and his courtiers were forced to suffer
    defeat. The military leaders in Kamakura knew
    nothing of such rituals, so no prayers to subdue
    the enemy were offered; thus they were able to
    win. But if they now depend on such prayers, they
    will meet the same fate as the courtiers.'

       '"The Ezo people of northern Japan have no
    understanding of the principles of birth and
    death. Ando Goro (25) was a pious man who knew
    the law of cause and effect and erected many
    Buddhist halls and pagodas. How could it happen,
    then, that the Ezo beheaded him? In view of these
    events, I have no doubt that, if these priests
    are allowed to go on offering prayers for
    victory, Your Lordship will meet with some
    untoward event. And when that happens, you must
    not under any circumstances say that I failed to
    warn you." Such was the stern manner in which I
    addressed him.'

       'When I retuned home, I heard that the Dharma
    Seal of the Amida Hall (26) had been asked to
    pray for rain from the tenth day of the fourth
    month. This Dharma Seal is the most learned
    priest of To-ji and the teacher of the prelate of
    Omuro.(27) He has mastered the True Word esoteric
    teachings of the great teachers Kobo, Jikaku, and
    Chisho, and has memorized all the doctrines of
    the various schools such as Tendai and Flower
    Garland. He began praying for rain on the tenth
    day, and on the eleventh a heavy rain fell. There
    was no wind, but only a gentle rain that fell for
    a day and a night. The regent, the lord of
    Sagami, was said to have been so deeply impressed
    that he presented the Dharma Seal with thirty ryo
    in gold, a horse, and other gifts as a reward.'

       'When the people of Kamakura heard this,
    eminent and humble alike clapped their hands,
    pursed their lips, and laughed with derision,
    saying: "That Nichiren preached a false kind of
    Buddhism and came near to getting his head cut
    off. He was finally pardoned, but instead of
    learning his lesson, he goes on slandering the
    Nembutsu and Zen schools, and even dares to speak
    ill of the esoteric teachings of True Word. How
    fortunate that we have had this rain to serve as
    proof of the power of True Word prayers!"'

       'Faced with such criticisms, my disciples
    became quite downcast and complained that I had
    been too provocative in my attacks on the True
    Word school. But I said to them, "Just wait a
    while. If the evil teachings of the Great Teacher
    Kobo could be correct and in fact produce
    effective prayers for the welfare of the nation,
    then the Retired Emperor of Oki would surely have
    been victorious in his struggle with the Kamakura
    shogunate, and Setaka,(28) the favorite boy
    attendant of the prelate of Omuro, would not have
    had his head cut off. Kobo in his Treatise on the
    Ten Stages of the Mind states that the Lotus
    Sutra is inferior to the Flower Garland Sutra. In
    his Precious Key to the Secret Treasury he claims
    that the Shakyamuni Buddha of the 'Life Span'
    chapter of the Lotus Sutra is an ordinary person,
    and in his Comparison of Exoteric and Esoteric
    Buddhism he calls the Great Teacher T'ien-t'ai a
    thief. Moreover, Shokakubo (29) in his Rules of
    Rites for Revering the Buddha's Relics states
    that the Buddha who preached the one vehicle of
    the Lotus Sutra is not even worthy to tend the
    sandals of a True Word master. The Dharma Seal of
    the Amida Hall is a follower of the men who
    taught these perverse doctrines. If such a man
    could show himself superior to me, then the
    dragon kings who send down the rain must be the
    enemies of the Lotus Sutra, and they will surely
    be chastised by the gods Brahma and Shakra and
    the four heavenly kings. There must be more to
    this than meets the eye!"'

       '"What do you mean by 'more than meets the
    eye'?" my disciples asked with a scornful smile.'

       'I replied: "Shan-wu-wei and Puk'ung both
    caused rain to fall in answer to their prayers,
    but it is recorded that they also brought about
    high winds. When Kobo prayed for rain, it fell
    after twenty-one days had passed. But under such
    circumstances, it is the same as though he had
    not caused it to rain at all, since some rain is
    naturally bound to fall in the course of a
    twenty-one day interval. The fact that it happened
    to rain while he was praying for it is in no way
    remarkable. What is really impressive is to cause
    it to fall through a single ceremony, the way
    T'ien-t'ai and Senkan (30) did. That is why I say
    there must be something peculiar about this
    rain."'

       'I had not even finished speaking when a great
    gale began to blow. Houses of every size,
    Buddhist halls and pagodas, old trees, and
    government buildings all were swept up into the
    air or toppled to the ground. A huge shining
    object flew through the sky, and the earth was
    strewn with beams and rafters. Men and women were
    blown to their death, and many cattle and horses
    were struck down. One might have excused such an
    evil wind if it had come in autumn, the typhoon
    season, but this was only the fourth month, the
    beginning of summer. Moreover, this wind did not
    blow throughout the country, but struck only the
    eight provinces of the Kanto region, and in fact
    only the two provinces of Musashi and Sagami. It
    blew strongest in Sagami; and within Sagami, it
    blew strongest in Kamakura; and within Kamakura,
    it blew strongest at the government headquarters,
    Wakamiya, and the temples Kencho-ji and Gokuraku-
    ji. It was apparent that it was no ordinary wind,
    but rather the result of the Dharma Seal's
    prayers alone. The people who had earlier pursed
    their lips and laughed at me suddenly turned
    sober, and my disciples too were astonished and
    expressed their wonder.'

       'I had been determined all along that, if
    after three attempts to warn the rulers of the
    nation my advice still went unheeded, I would
    leave the country. With that thought in mind, I
    accordingly left Kamakura on the twelfth day of
    the fifth month and came here to Mount Minobu.'

       'In the tenth month of the same year (1274),
    the Mongols launched their attack. Not only were
    the islands of Iki and Tsushima (31) assaulted
    and captured, but the forces of the Dazaifu
    government office in Kyushu were defeated as
    well. When the military leaders, the lay priest
    Shoni and Otomo,(32) received word of this, they
    fled, and the remaining warriors were struck down
    without difficulty. [Though the Mongol forces
    withdrew,] it was apparent just how weak Japan's
    defenses would be if they should launch another
    attack in the future.'

       'The Benevolent Kings Sutra says, "Once the
    sages have departed, then the seven disasters are
    certain to arise." The Sovereign Kings Sutra
    states, "Because evil people are respected and
    favored and good people are subjected to
    punishment, marauders will appear from other
    regions, and the people of the country will meet
    with death and disorder." If these pronouncements
    of the Buddha are true, then evil men certainly
    exist in our country, and the ruler favors and
    respects such men while treating good men with
    enmity.'

       'The Great Collection Sutra states, "The sun
    and moon no longer shed their light. All the four
    directions will be afflicted by drought. . . .
    The wicked rulers and monks who perform these ten
    evil acts will curse and destroy my correct
    teaching." In the Benevolent Kings Sutra we read,
    "Evil monks, hoping to gain fame and profit, in
    many cases appear before the ruler, the crown
    prince, or the other princes, and take it upon
    themselves to preach doctrines that lead to the
    violation of the Buddhist Law and the destruction
    of the nation. The ruler, failing to perceive the
    truth of the situation, listens to and puts faith
    in such doctrines. . . . In this way he brings
    about the destruction of Buddhism and of the
    nation." And the Lotus Sutra speaks of the "evil
    monks of that muddied age."(33) If these passages
    in the sutras are true, then there must
    unquestionably be evil monks in this country. The
    crooked trees are destined to be cut down on a
    treasure mountain, and dead bodies are rejected
    by the great sea. Though the great sea of the
    Buddhist Law and the treasure mountain of the one
    vehicle may admit the shards and rubble of the
    five cardinal sins or the dirty water of the four
    major offenses,(34) they have no room for the
    "dead bodies" of those who slander the Law, or
    for the "crooked trees" who are icchantikas,
    persons of incorrigible disbelief. Therefore,
    those who endeavor to practice the Buddhist Law
    and who care about what happens to them in future
    lives should know what a fearful thing it is to
    slander the Lotus Sutra.'

       'Many people wonder why anyone should pay heed
    to a person like myself who speaks ill of Kobo,
    Jikaku, and others of their group. I do not know
    about other regions, but I know that the people
    everywhere in the province of Awa have good
    reason to believe what I say. They have seen the
    proof right before their eyes. Endon-bo of
    Inomori, Saigyo-bo and Dogi-bo of Kiyosumi, and
    Jitchi-bo of Kataumi were all eminent priests;
    but one should inquire what kind of deaths they
    met with. However, I will say no more of them.
    Enchi-bo spent three years in the great hall of
    Seicho-ji copying the text of the Lotus Sutra in
    a laborious fashion, bowing three times as he
    copied each character. He had memorized all ten
    volumes, and every day and night recited the
    entire sutra twice for a period of fifty years.
    Everyone said that he would surely become a
    Buddha. But I alone said that he, along with
    Dogibo, was even more certain to fall into the
    depths of the hell of incessant suffering than
    were the Nembutsu priests. You would do well to
    inquire carefully just how these men met death.
    If it had not been for me, people would have
    believed that these priests had attained
    Buddhahood.'

       'You should realize from this that the manner
    of the death of Kobo, Jikaku, and the others
    indicated that a truly miserable fate was in
    store for them. But their disciples contrived to
    keep the matter secret, so that even the members
    of the imperial court never learned of it. Hence
    these men have been looked up to with increasing
    reverence in later times. And if there had been
    no one like me to reveal the truth, they would
    have gone on being honored in that manner for
    endless ages to come. The non-Buddhist teacher
    Uluka [turned to stone at his death], but eight
    hundred years later [his errors were brought to
    light and] the stone melted and turned to water.
    And in the case of another non-Buddhist teacher
    Kapila, a thousand years passed before his faults
    were brought to light.(35)'

       'People are able to be born in human form
    because they have observed the five precepts in a
    previous existence. And if they continue to
    observe the five precepts in this life, then the
    twenty- five benevolent deities will protect
    them, and Same Birth and Same Name, the two
    heavenly messengers who have been with each of
    them since birth on their shoulders, will guard
    them. So long as they commit no fault, the demons
    will have no chance to do them harm. And yet in
    this country of Japan, there are countless people
    who cry out in misery. We know, too, that the
    people on the islands of Iki and Tsushima had to
    suffer at the hands of the Mongols, and what
    befell the defenders of the Dazaifu in Kyushu.
    What fault were the people of this country guilty
    of that they should meet with such a fate? One
    would surely like to know the answer. One or two
    of the persons there may have been guilty of
    evil, but is it possible that all of them could
    have been?'

       'The blame lies entirely in the fact that this
    country is filled with the disciples of those who
    despised the Lotus Sutra---True Word priests who
    follow the doctrines handed down from Kobo,
    Jikaku, and Chisho; Nembutsu priests who are
    latter-day disciples of Shan-tao and Honen; and
    the followers of Bodhidharma and the other
    patriarchs of the Zen school. That is why Brahma,
    Shakra, the four heavenly kings, and the other
    deities, true to the vows they took when the
    Lotus Sutra was expounded to split into seven
    pieces the head [of anyone who troubles a
    preacher of the sutra],(36) have sent down this
    punishment.'

Footnotes:

24. Lotus Sutra, chap. 25. In the sutra, the sentence reads in the
future tense. It was changed here to fit the context of this letter.

25. Ando Goro (n.d.) was a magistrate who exercised jurisdiction over
the northern part of Japan in the time of the regent Hojo Yoshitoki
(1163--1224).

26. The Dharma Seal of the Amida Hall refers to the True Word priest
Kaga Josho, who was the superintendent of the Amida Hall in Kamakura.

27. The prelate of Omuro refers to Prince Dojo (n.d.), a son of
Emperor Gotoba who had entered the priesthood. This generally means
the title of a retired emperor or prince who entered the priesthood
and lived at Ninna-ji, a True Word temple in Kyoto. Omuro is another
name for Ninna-ji.

28. Setaka (d. 1221) was the sixth son of Sasaki Hirotsuna, a warrior
who supported Emperor Gotoba. He was the cherished favorite of the
prince-priest Dojo at Ninnaji, and was beheaded in 1221 at the time of
the Jokyu Disturbance.

29. Shokaku-bo (1095--1143), also called Kakuban, was the precursor of
the New Doctrine branch of the True Word school.

30. Senkan (918--983) was a priest of the Tendai school. In the summer
of 962, when Japan was suffering from drought, the emperor ordered him
to offer prayers for rain. It is said that, immediately after the
imperial envoy reached him, he caused rain to fall.

31. Iki and Tsushima are islands off the coast of Kyushu in southern
Japan. The Dazaifu office was the administrative center of Kyushu,
Iki, and Tsushima, and served as a foreign affairs conduit as well as
a rallying point in the case of foreign invasion. During the Mongol
attack of 1274, it was a focal point of defense against the Mongols.

32. Shoni is Shoni Sukeyoshi (1198--1281), the constable of Chikuzen.
Otomo is Otomo Yoriyasu (1222--1300), the constable of Bungo.

33. Lotus Sutra, chap. 13.

34. The four major offenses are precepts for monks, dealing with
killing, theft, sexual misconduct, and lying.

35. Kapila was the founder of the Samkhya school, one of the six main
schools of Brahmanism in India. According to The Annotations on "Great
Concentration and Insight," he transformed himself into a stone
because he was afraid of death. But when Bodhisattva Dignaga wrote a
verse of admiration on the stone, it cracked into pieces, thereby
revealing the falsity of Kapila's teachings a thousand years after his
death.

36. Lotus Sutra, chap. 26. It states, "If there are those who fail to
heed our spells and trouble and disrupt the preachers of the Law,
their heads will split into seven pieces."
__________________________________________________________

1275-1279 CE, 1287-1288 CE: Rabban Bar Sauma and Markos. Önggüd
(Turkic) Nestorian monks who traveled from Tai-tu, Qubilai Khan's
northern capital, to the Middle East, via the southern branch of the
Silk Road (through Khotan and Kashgar). Although on a pilgrimage to
Jerusalem (which they never reached), they seem to have had official
sponsorship from the Khan. Once in the Mongol Ilkhanid realms, they
became involved in Nestorian church politics, and Markos eventually
was elected head of the church as Patriarch Mar Yaballaha III. Bar
Sauma was sent to the West as an emissary of the Ilkhanid ruler Arghun
in 1287, with the goal of concluding an alliance against the Mamluks.
Bar Sauma's writings were preserved in an abridged translation into
Syriac, from which there are several translations into modern
languages. As Rossabi notes, "His narrative remains the only one of
its era to provide an East Asian perspective on European ways and
rites," even though it is somewhat disappointing in detail about life
in the places through which he traveled. Like their contemporary,
Marco Polo, the travelers are not mentioned in any Chinese sources.
__________________________________________________________

1279-1328 CE: John of Monte Corvino. Franciscan missionary, active in
Armenia and Persia, and then in India and China. He left Tabriz for
India in 1291 and arrived in Beijing probably after the death of
Qubilai Khan in 1294. He was elevated to the rank of Archbishop in ca.
1307 and continued to head the Catholic mission there until his death.
Although he did not write a travel narrative, several of his letters
have been preserved.
__________________________________________________________

1281 CE: The Second Mongol invasion of Japan.
__________________________________________________________

1316-1330 CE: Odoric of Pordenone. Franciscan monk who traveled via
Constantinople and the Black Sea to Persia, and then via the Indian
Ocean to India in the early 1320s. From there he sailed around
southeast Asia to the east coast of China and spent several years in
Beijing. His claim to have returned via Tibet is dubious, although he
apparently traveled overland, arriving back in Venice via the Black
Sea and Constantinople. His lengthy travel account, which he dictated
in 1330, became a "best seller," in part because of Odoric's
indiscriminate mixture of tall tales with more authentic information.
He occasionally notes aspects of Chinese culture that were ignored by
Marco Polo, "with whose account he was certainly familiar" (de
Rachewiltz). Important portions of his material were re-worked and
given a further fictional gloss by the author of the very popular late
medieval travel fable attributed to John Mandeville.
__________________________________________________________

1325-1354 CE: Ibn Battuta. A native of Tangier (Morocco), Shams al-Din
Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Battuta (1304-1368/9 or 1377) is famous
for spending the years between 1325 and 1354, when he returned home,
traveling across North Africa and through much of Eurasia, all the way
to China. His initial goal was to participate in the pilgrimage to
Mecca (the hajj); his interest in Muslim holy men and places dominates
portions of his text. While he may have kept notes, the account as we
have it is "a work of literature, part autobiography and part
descriptive compendium" (Dunn). It was dictated to Ibn Djuzayy between
1354 and 1357. Some sections clearly do not contain eye-witness
material; chronology is often confused. There are critical views of
the value of his material on Iran and questions about how much he saw
in China. Among the most valuable sections are his descriptions of
Anatolia, the territories and customs of the Golden Horde, and
Southern India.
__________________________________________________________

1333 CE: Nichiren Daishonin's designated successor, Nikko Shonin,
passes away at Omosu (2/7) and his designated successor, Nichimoku
Shonin passes away on the road to Kyoto to remonstrate with the
government, at Tarui (11/15).

After Nitta Yoshisada's army defeats the ruling Hojo clan of the
Kamakura Shogunate and Emperor Godaigo re-establishes the imperial
government at Kyoto, Nichimoku had decided to remonstrate with the new
government, which might bring on a new opportunity to refute the other
schools of Buddhism in front of the ruler of the nation. Tragically,
he is old and dies during the trip, with no capable successors.

The quick succession of their deaths creates a leadership struggle in
the Fuji School at Taisekiji (Nichiren Shu Komon Shu). The sect
quickly falls into a ruinous struggle which lasts for a century. (Note
that merely 7 years after their passing, Zen becomes the official
religion of the Shogunate.)

The Fuji School goes into decline.
__________________________________________________________

1337 CE: Beginning of the "Hundred Year War" between England and
France.
__________________________________________________________

1339-1353 CE: John of Marignolli. Franciscan sent as papal legate to
Yüan (Mongol) Emperor of China. Entered the lands of the Golden Horde
via the Black Sea. His route probably ran through Urgench (S. of Aral
Sea), via Hami (north of the Taklamakan) to Beijing and Shang-tu,
where he was received in August 1342. After three years, headed home
via ship to Hormuz and then overland to the Levant. Included his
travel recollections in his chronicle of the history of Bohemia; his
account was ignored until the nineteenth century.
__________________________________________________________

1340 CE: Zen Buddhism becomes official religion of Ashikaga Shogunate
in Japan.
__________________________________________________________

1340 CE: Francesco Balducci Pegolotti. A Florentine merchant,
Pegolotti was active in the Eastern Mediterranean in the second
quarter of the fourteenth century, at which time he acquired first-
and second-hand information on the Asian trade. While he himself never
travelled further east, his account is of particular interest for its
description of the relative security of trade routes through the
territories of the Mongol Empire and the great variety of products
available in commercial centers such as Constantinople by about 1340.
His merchant handbook survived in a copy made in 1471.
__________________________________________________________

1347 CE: Bubonic Plague ravages Europe, killing about 25 million
people over the next four years.
__________________________________________________________

1350 CE: Approximate beginning of European Renaissance, which for the
next 300 years would involve a general "rebirth" of cultural values,
with emphasis on individual achievements, along with many new
breakthroughs and achievements in scientific, artistic, and
philosophic domains.
__________________________________________________________

1368 CE: Mongols driven from China by Ming dynasty forces. Ming
Dynasty lasts until 1644.
__________________________________________________________

1391 CE:  Mobs murder up to 50,000 Jews throughout the Spanish kingdom
__________________________________________________________

1401 CE: Statute of Heresy proclaimed by the King of England.

    Statute of Heresy (De Hæretico Comburendo (1401)

    As witch hunters went to work, at least 200,000
    died at the stake in Europe between the 11th and
    18th centuries. In Britain there were sporadic
    witch burnings until the De Hæretico Comburendo
    (Statute of Heresy). This law enabled bishops to
    arrest all those believed to have spoken out
    against God, including preachers, schoolmasters
    and writers.

    Statutes of the Realm, 2:12S-28: 2 Henry IV

    Whereas, it is shown to our sovereign lord the
    king on the advice of the prelates and clergy of
    his realm of England in this present Parliament,
    that although the Catholic faith builded upon
    Christ, and by his apostles and the Holy Church,
    sufficiently determined, declared, and approved,
    hath been hitherto by good and holy and most
    noble progenitors and predecessors of our
    sovereign lord the king in the said realm
    amongst all the realms of the world most devoutly
    observed, and the Church of England by his said
    most noble progenitors and ancestors, to the
    honor of God and the whole realm aforesaid,
    laudably endowed and in her rights and liberties
    sustained, without that the same faith or the
    said church was hurt or grievously oppressed, or
    else perturbed by any perverse doctrine or
    wicked, heretical, or erroneous opinions. Yet,
    nevertheless, divers false and perverse people of
    a certain new sect, of the faith of the
    sacraments of the church, and the authority of
    the same damnably thinking and against the law of
    God and of the Church usurping the office of
    preaching, do perversely and maliciously in
    divers places within the said realm, under the
    color of dissembled holiness, preach and teach
    these days openly and privily divers new
    doctrines, and wicked heretical and erroneous
    opinions contrary to the same faith and blessed
    determinations of the Holy Church, and of such
    sect and wicked doctrine and opinions they make
    unlawful conventicles and confederacies, they
    hold and exercise schools, they make and write
    books, they do wickedly instruct and inform
    people, and as such they may excite and stir them
    to sedition and insurrection, and make great
    strife and division among the people, and other
    enormities horrible to he heard daily do
    perpetrate and commit subversion of the said
    catholic faith and doctrine of the Holy Church,
    in diminution of divine Worship, and also in
    destruction of the estate, rights, and liberties
    of the said Church of England; by which sect and
    wicked and false preachings, doctrines, and
    opinions of the said false and perverse people,
    not only most greatest peril of the sou1s, hut
    also many more other hurts, slanders, and perils,
    which God prohibit, might come to this realm,
    unless it he the more plentifully and speedily
    holpen by the King's majesty in this behalf;
    especially since the diocesans of the said realm
    cannot by their jurisdiction spiritual, without
    aid of the said royal majesty, sufficiently
    correct the said false and perverse people, nor
    refrain their malice, because the said false and
    perverse people do go from diocese to diocese and
    will not appear before the said diocesans, but
    the same diocesans and their jurisdiction
    spiritual, and the keys of the church with the
    censures of the same, do utterly condemn and
    despise; and so their wicked preachings and
    doctrines do from day to day continue and
    exercise to the utter destruction of all order
    and rule of right and reason. Upon which
    novelties and excesses above rehearsed, the
    prelates and clergy aforesaid, and also the
    Commons of the said realm being in the same
    Parliament, have prayed our sovereign lord the
    king that his royal highness would vouchsafe in
    the said Parliament to provide a convenient
    remedy. The same our sovereign lord the king,
    graciously considering the premises, and also the
    laudable steps of his said most noble progenitors
    and ancestors, for the conservation of the said
    catholic faith and sustentation of the said
    divine worship, and also the safeguard of the
    estate, rights and liberties of the said Church
    of England, to the laud of God and merit of our
    said sovereign lord the king, and prosperity and
    honor of all his said realm, and for the
    eschewing of such dissensions, divisions, hurts,
    slanders, and perils, in time to come, and that
    this wicked sect, preachings, doctrines, and
    opinions, should from henceforth cease and he
    utterly destroyed; by the assent of the great
    lords and other noble persons of the said realm,
    being in the said Parliament, hatth granted,
    established, and ordained, from henceforth firmly
    to be observed, that none within the said realm
    or any other dominions subject to his Royal
    Majesty, presume to preach openly or privily,
    without the license of the diocesan of the same
    place first required and obtained, curates in
    their own churches and persons hitherto
    privileged, and other of the Canon Law granted,
    only except; nor that none from henceforth
    anything preach, hold, teach, or instruct openly
    or privily, or make or write any book contrary to
    the catholic faith or determination of the Holy
    Church, nor of such sect and wicked doctrines and
    opinions shall make any conventicles, or in any
    wise hold or exercise schools; and also that none
    from henceforth in any wise favor such preacher
    or maker of any such and like conventicles, or
    persons holding or exercising schools, or making
    or writing such books, or so teaching, informing,
    or exciting the people, nor any of them maintain
    or in any wise sustain, and that all and singular
    having such books or any writings of such wicked
    doctrine and opinions, shall really with effect
    deliver or cause to be delivered all such books
    and writings to the diocesan of the same place
    within forty days from the time of the
    proclamation of this ordinance and statute.

    And if any person or persons of whatsoever sex,
    estate, or condition that he or they be, from
    henceforth do or attempt against the said royal
    ordinance and statute aforesaid in the premises
    or any of them, or such books in the form
    aforesaid do not deliver, then the diocesan of
    the same place in his diocese such person or
    persons in this behalf defamed or evidently
    suspected and every of them may by the authority
    of the said ordinance and statute cause to be
    arrested and under safe custody in his prison to
    be detained till he or they of the articles laid
    to him or them in this behalf do canonically
    purge him or themselves, or else such wicked
    sect, preachings, doctrines and heretical and
    erroneous opinions do abjure, according as the
    laws of the Church do demand and require.

    And if any person within the said realms and
    dominions, upon the said wicked preachings,
    doctrines, opinions, schools, and heretical and
    erroneous informations, or any of them be before
    the diocesan of the same place or his
    commissaries convict by sentence, and the same
    wicked sect, preachings, doctrines and opinions,
    schools and informations, do refuse duly to
    abjure, or by the diocesan of the same place or
    his commissaries, after the abjuration made by
    the same person be pronounced relapsed, so that
    according to the holy canons he ought to be left
    to the secular court (upon which credence shall
    be given to the diocesan of the same place or to
    his commissaries in this behalf), then the
    sheriff of the county of the same place, and
    mayor and sheriffs, or sheriff, or mayor and
    bailiffs of the city, town, and borough of the
    same county next to the same diocesan or the said
    commissaries, shal1 be personally present in
    preferring of such sentences, when they by the
    same diocesan or his comissaries shall be
    required; and they the same persons and every of
    them, after such sentence promulgate shall
    receive, and them before the people in an high
    place cause to be burnt, that such punishment may
    strike fear into the minds of others,
    whereby,nosuch wicked doctrine and heretical and
    erroneous opinions, nor their authors and
    fautors, in the said realm and dominions, against
    the Catholic faith, Christian law, and
    determination of the holy church, which God
    prohibit, be sustained or in any way suffered; in
    which all and singular the premises concerning
    the said ordinance and statute, the sheriffs,
    mayors' and bailiffs of the said counties,
    cities, boroughs and towns shall be attending,
    aiding, and supporting to the said diocesans and
    their commissaries.
__________________________________________________________

1403-1406 CE: Ruy Gonzales de Clavijo and Alfonso Paez. Ambassadors of
Spanish King Henry III of Castile and Leon to Timur (Tamerlane). A
third envoy, Gómez de Salazar, died en route. Traveled through the
Mediterranean to Constantinople, into the Black Sea to Trebizond and
then overland via Tabriz to Balkh, Kesh (Shahr-i Sabs) and Samarkand.
On return journey, they passed through Bukhara. Clavijo's account,
written soon after his return in 1406, is a very important source for
travel on the western part of the Silk Road. Its description of
Tamerlane's Samarkand is one of the fullest available and includes
substantial detail on economic life, trade with India and China, and
Timurid buildings.
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1413-1415 CE, 1421-1422 CE, 1431-1433 CE: Ma Huan. Muslim interpreter
who accompanied the famous Ming admiral Ch'eng Ho (Zheng He) on his
fourth, sixth and seventh expeditions to the Indian Ocean. His
Ying-yai sheng-lan (Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores) (published
in 1451) contains valuable information on geography, products and
trade in Southeast Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East. On the first
two voyages, he went as far as Hormuz; on the third he apparently
reached Mecca.
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1419-1422 CE: Ghiyathuddin Naqqash. Artist representing Prince Mirza
Baysunghur, son of Timurid ruler Shahrukh, in embassy sent by latter
to Beijing in 1419. Describes travel via route north of Tarim Basin
(through Turfan, Jiayuguan, Suzhou to Beijing and back via Kashgar to
Herat), various aspects of culture along way, including Buddhism, and
reception at Ming court.
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1431 CE: Joan of Arc burned at the stake, at the hands of the English
(see statue of heresy 1401 CE).
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1435-1439 CE: Pero Tafur. A native and notable of Cordoba, born ca.
1410, Tafur traveled from Spain to the Eastern Mediterranean and back.
While not a merchant, he was very interested in commercial affairs and
well connected with the trading networks. He was in Egypt, the Black
Sea region and in the sad remains of the dying Constantinople; while
he thought about going to India, the closest he came was a
conversation with the famous traveler Nicolo di Conti, whom he met on
the latter's return journey from South Asia.
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1436-1452 CE, 1473-1479 CE: Giosofat Barbaro.A merchant who spent a
decade and a half in the Venetian colony of Tana at the mouth of the
Don River and then in the 1470s traveled as an ambassador to Persia.
In his "Journey to Tana" he describes the regions adjoining the Black
Sea as well as distant Muscovy, which he never visited; his "Journey
to Persia" follows closely his official report on his mission. The
latter, at least, incorporates information from other travelers and
presumably was influenced by the author's having seen the Persian
travels of Contrarini.
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1455 CE: First printing of the Gutenberg Bible, and the beginning of
the European printing revolution.
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1462 CE: Ivan the Great, first Russian czar, begins 43 year reign,
ends tribute payments to Mongols.
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1466-1472 CE: Afanasii Nikitin. A merchant from the Russian city of
Tver on the upper Volga River who traveled ...

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